Biofuels, Solar and Wind as Renewable Energy Systems - Benefits and Risks

von: D. Pimentel

Springer-Verlag, 2008

ISBN: 9781402086540

Sprache: Englisch

513 Seiten, Download: 12079 KB

Format: PDF, auch als Online-Lesen

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Biofuels, Solar and Wind as Renewable Energy Systems - Benefits and Risks

	Preface	5
	Acknowledgements	7
	Contents	8
	About our Authors	10
	Contributors	17
	Renewable and Solar Energy Technologies: Energy and Environmental Issues	20
	1.1 Introduction	20
	1.2 Hydroelectric Power	21
	1.3 Biomass Energy	23
	1.4 Wind Power	24
	1.5 Solar Thermal Conversion Systems	25
	1.6 Photovoltaic Systems	26
	1.7 Geothermal Systems	27
	1.8 Biogas	28
	1.9 Ethanol and Energy Inputs	28
	1.10 Grasslands and Celulosic Ethanol	30
	1.11 Methanol and Vegetable Oils	30
	1.12 Transition to Renewable Energy	31
	1.13 Conclusion	32
	References	33
	Can the Earth Deliver the Biomass-for-Fuel we Demand?	37
	2.1 Introduction	37
	2.2 Background	40
	2.3 Plan of Attack	45
	2.4 Efficiency of Cellulosic Ethanol Refineries	46
	2.5 Where will the Agrofuel Biomass Come from?	51
	2.6 Conclusions	62
	References	62
	Appendix 1: Ecosystem Definition and Properties	64
	Appendix 2: Mass Balance of Carbon in an Ecosystem	66
	Appendix 3: Environmental Controls on Net	70
	Primary Productivity	70
	Glossary	72
	A Review of the Economic Rewards and Risks of Ethanol Production	74
	3.1 Introduction	74
	3.2 Measuring and Mismeasuring Biofuels Economic Impacts	76
	3.3 Ethanol Production Economic Opportunities and Offsets	81
	3.4 Bioenergy Promotion and the Overall Sustainability	89
	of Rural Economies	89
	References	94
	Subsidies to Ethanol in the United States	96
	Acronyms & abbreviations	97
	4.1 Introduction	97
	4.2 Evolution of Federal Policies Supporting Liquid Biofuels	99
	4.3 Current Policies Supporting Ethanol	101
	4.4 Aggregate Support to Ethanol	113
	4.5 Pending Legislation	119
	4.6 Conclusions	120
	References	122
	Peak Oil, EROI, Investments and the Economy in an Uncertain Future	126
	5.1 Introduction	127
	5.2 The Age of Petroleum	127
	5.3 How much Oil will we be able to Extract?	129
	5.4 Decreasing Energy Return on Investment	134
	5.5 The Balloon Graph	136
	5.6 Economic Impacts of Peak Oil and Decreasing EROI	138
	5.7 The “Cheese Slicer” Model	139
	5.8 Results of Simulation	144
	5.9 Discussion	144
	5.10 Conclusion	147
	References	147
	Wind Power: Benefits and Limitations	150
	6.1 Introduction	150
	6.2 The Power Density of Electricity from Wind Turbines	152
	6.3 Producing the Output of a Power Station from Wind Power	153
	6.4 The Problem of Assessing Energy with Respect to Wind Turbines	154
	6.5 The Implications of the Uncontrollable Nature of the Output from Wind Turbines	155
	6.6 The Problems of Operating in Harness with Wind Turbines	156
	6.7 Alternatives toWind Power	157
	6.8 The Problems of Storage	158
	6.9 The Problem of ‘Liquid’ Fuel in a Fossil-Fuel-Free Society	163
	6.10 Learning from Experience (Denmark)	164
	6.11 Making Realistic Assessments of the Cost ofWind Power	165
	6.12 Conclusion	165
	Notes	166
	References	168
	Renewable Diesel	169
	7.1 Introduction	169
	7.2 The Diesel Engine	170
	7.3 Ecological Limits	170
	7.4 Straight Vegetable Oil	172
	7.5 Biodiesel	172
	7.6 Green Diesel	175
	7.7 Feed Stocks	177
	7.8 Conclusions	183
	7.9 Conversion Factors and Calculations	183
	References	185
	Complex Systems Thinking and Renewable Energy Systems	188
	8.1 Theoretical Issues: The Problems Faced by Energy Analysis	189
	8.2 Basic Concepts of Bioeconomics	198
	8.3 Using the MuSIASEM Approach to Check the Viability of Alternative Energy Sources: An Application to Biofuels	209
	8.4 Conclusion	220
	References	224
	Sugarcane and Ethanol Production and Carbon Dioxide Balances	229
	9.1 Introduction	229
	9.2 The “Green” Promise	230
	9.3 CO2 Emissions of Sugarcane Ethanol	230
	9.4 Gasoline Versus Ethanol	233
	9.5 Bagasse as a Source of Energy	233
	9.6 Pre-Harvest Burning of Sugarcane and Mechanical Harvest	235
	9.7 Distillery Wastes	236
	9.8 Possible Additional Sources of Methane	237
	9.9 CO2 Mitigation	237
	9.10 Variations of CO2 Emissions Calculations	238
	9.11 A Trend in the Near Future	239
	9.12 Environmental Impacts Versus CO2 Emissions	240
	9.13 Conclusions	241
	References	242
	Biomass Fuel Cycle Boundaries and Parameters: Current Practice and Proposed Methodology	245
	Acronyms & abbreviations	245
	10.1 Introduction	246
	10.2 BFC Analysis Methodology: A Modular Model Approach	246
	10.3 BFC Fuel and Net Energy Balance Definitions	254
	10.4 BFC Models	256
	10.5 Other Considerations	269
	References	270
	Our Food and Fuel Future	272
	11.1 Introduction	273
	11.2 Price and Availability of Traditional Fuels	273
	11.3 Alternative Sources of Energy	280
	11.4 GreenhouseWarming and its Connections	294
	11.5 Political and Social Conditions, Especially	298
	in the United States	298
	11.6 Conclusions	302
	References	305
	A Framework for Energy Alternatives: Net Energy, Liebig’s Law and Multi-criteria Analysis	308
	12.1 Introduction	308
	12.2 Net Energy Analysis	309
	12.3 An Introduction to EROI – Energy Return on Investment	309
	12.4 Humans and Energy Gain	310
	12.5 Current Energy Gain	311
	12.6 An Energy Theory of Value	312
	12.7 Why is Net Energy Important?	312
	12.8 Net Energy and Energy Quality	313
	12.9 Energy Return on Investment – Towards a Consistent Framework	315
	12.10 A Framework for Analyzing EROI	318
	12.11 Non-Energy Inputs	319
	12.12 Non-Energy Outputs	321
	12.13 Non-Market Impacts	321
	12.14 A Summary of Methodologies	322
	12.15 A Unifying EROI Framework	323
	12.16 Liebig’s Law, Multi-Criteria Analysis, and Energy from Biofuels	325
	12.17 Conclusion	328
	References	329
	Bio-Ethanol Production in Brazil	333
	13.1 Historical Introduction	334
	13.2 The Sugarcane Crop in Brazil	337
	13.3 Environmental Impact	342
	13.4 Labour Conditions	362
	13.5 Conclusions	363
	References	365
	Ethanol Production: Energy and Economic Issues Related to U.S. and Brazilian Sugarcane	369
	14.1 Introduction	369
	14.2 Energy Inputs in Sugarcane Production	370
	14.3 Energy Inputs in Fermentation/Distillation	372
	14.4 Energy Yield	374
	14.5 Economic Costs	374
	14.6 Land Use in the U.S.	375
	14.7 Ethanol Production and Use in Brazil	376
	14.8 Environmental Impacts	376
	14.9 Air Pollution	377
	14.10 Food Security	378
	14.11 Food versus the Fuel Issue	378
	14.12 Summary	379
	References	380
	Ethanol Production Using Corn, Switchgrass and Wood	384
	15.1 Introduction	384
	15.2 Energy Inputs in Corn Production	385
	15.3 Cellulosic Ethanol	391
	15.4 Switchgrass Production of Ethanol	393
	15.5 Wood Cellulose Conversion into Ethanol	394
	15.6 Biodiesel Production	397
	15.7 Soybean Conversion into Biodiesel	397
	15.8 Canola Conversion into Biodiesel	399
	15.9 Conclusion	400
	References	402
	Developing Energy Crops for Thermal Applications: Optimizing Fuel Quality, Energy Security and GHG Mitigation	406
	Acronyms & abbreviations	407
	16.1 Introduction	407
	16.2 Energy Crop Production for Energy Security and GHG Mitigation	408
	16.3 Optimization of Energy Grasses for Combustion Applications	422
	16.4 Outlook	429
	References	430
	Organic and Sustainable Agriculture and Energy Conservation	435
	17.1 Organic Agriculture: An Overview	436
	17.2 Organic Agriculture: An Energy-Saving Alternative?	448
	17.3 CO2 Emissions and Organic Management	453
	17.4 Agricultural “Waste ” for Cellulosic Ethanol Production or Back to the Field?	458
	17.5 Organically Produced Biofuels?	461
	17.6 Conclusion	464
	References	466
	Biofuel Production in Italy and Europe: Benefits and Costs, in the Light of the Present European	475
	18.1 Introduction	476
	18.2 To What extent Would a Large Scale Biofuel Production Really Replace Fossil Fuels?	477
	18.3 Physical Constraints Other than Energy	487
	18.4 The Large-Scale Picture. An Overview of Substitution Scenarios	490
	18.5 Discussion	493
	18.6 Conclusions	497
	References	499
	The Power Density of Ethanol from Brazilian Sugarcane	502
	19.1 Introduction	502
	19.2 Errors and the Potential for More Relating to Sugarcane	505
	19.3 Soil Erosion Problems	506
	References	507
	A Brief Discussion on Algae for Oil Production: Energy Issues	508
	References	509
	Index	510

Biofuels, Solar and Wind as Renewable Energy Systems - Benefits and Risks

von: D. Pimentel

Biofuels, Solar and Wind as Renewable Energy Systems - Benefits and Risks

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